Positive Discrimination Towards Women in Society Essay Example

Positive Discrimination Towards Women in Society Essay Positive discrimination towards women in society is justified. No because†¦ Discrimination is never positive. In a civilized society, it is not exceptable to treat people differently, on the basis of gender. Furthermore, the claim of women having a disadvantaged status is preposterous. A quick examination of our laws and societal practices shows that women have an incredibly advantaged status. They are not required to register for the draft[1], like men are. They have a government council devoted solely to them[2] [3], whereas men do not. They have female-only scholarships and grants[4], whereas men do not. They have shelters to escape domestic violence[5], whereas men do not. They are protected from circumcision by law[6], whereas men are not. Their names are hidden when they accuse others of several kinds of crimes, whereas men are not[7]. If anyone is disadvantaged, its men. Men are 80% of suicides[8], 40% of colleges students[9], 40% of degree earners[10], 80% of the homeless[11], 80% of the layed off[12], and 92. 7% of the job deaths[13]. Men are more likely to die from every major cause of death[14], and yet there exists no amount of medical funding and research for them, on par with that of women. And this is to say nothing, of the blatant discriminations, under the law, that men suffer, as mentioned above. Positive discrimination towards women should not be allowed Women shouldnt be subject to positive discrimination because they are as capable as men are at succeeding in society. International law also states that men and women are both equal in right therefore positive discrimination is in direct breach of this. We will write a custom essay sample on Positive Discrimination Towards Women in Society specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Positive Discrimination Towards Women in Society specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Positive Discrimination Towards Women in Society specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Even given the best of intentions, discrimination based on ascribed rather than achieved characteristics is unjust Not true equality†¦ If men and women are truly equal, there shouldnt be a need for a particular legislation to classify them as such. Laws are inherently complicated and the wording can be interpreted in a variety of ways. If we propose to legislate equality rights for women, that could have the negative effect of restricting the rights as lawyers examine the legislations finding alternate interpretations. Ending up in constricting rights that is already given in general laws applying equally to every man woman and child in this country. Positive discrimination serves little purpose, women shouldnt need a specific set of laws telling them what they can do, if they truly believe they are equal to men in every way. The basic laws such as Human Rights Act 1998 should be sufficient. Will Cause Resentment Between Men and Women Positive discrimination is seen as favouring one over the other, the other side will harbor resentments and jealousy. Women and men need to work together in society; and, they cant do so with such hostility between them. Such steps will engender a feeling of despair in men, when they are treated as less that of women. They will resent women, particularly for attempting to justify the discriminations against them. In no way, shape, and form could biases against men, contribute to a healthy society, nor will they mend any problems we have now. On the contrary, they would make relations between the genders far more problematic than they already are. As for your question, about my origins, Im from Mars, if youre from Venus. It does not address the underlying issues well actually if the women of today are given jobs on the basis of positive discrimination, their daughters(and sons) have greater motivation and probability for getting jobs. Working/educated mothers have better chances of educated/working children. Schools set up just to educate girls are a form of positive discrimination. Positive discrimination is merely a stop-gap measure. It only helps women in the end result ie getting a job it doesnt address why they might not be having the access to these opportunities in the first place. If women are not being offered jobs at the top end of industry, why not? If as in some countries it is because they do not have equal access to education, then addressing this base issue would have a more positive and long lasting effect. If women do not have access to jobs through discrimination reasons then discrimination legislation needs to be implemented or more strictly enforced. Positive discrimination may help the current generation of disadvantaged women but fails to address future generations issues. It is Men, Not Women, who are Disadvantaged in our Society The claim of women having a disadvantaged status is preposterous. A quick examination of our laws and societal practices shows that women have an incredibly advantaged status. They are not required to register for the draft[1], like men are. They have a government council devoted solely to them[2] [3], whereas men do not. They have female-only scholarships and grants[4], whereas men do not. They have shelters to escape domestic violence[5], whereas men do not. They are protected from circumcision by law[6], whereas men are not. Theyre names are hidden when they accuse others of several kinds of crimes, whereas men are not[7]. If anyone is disadvantaged, its men. Men are 80% of suicides[8], 40% of colleges students[9], 40% of degree earners, 80% of the homeless[10], 80% of the layed off[11], and 92. 7% of the job deaths[12]. Men are more likely to die from every major cause of death[13], and yet there exists no amount of medical funding and research for them, on par with that of women. And this is to say nothing, of the blatant discriminations, under the law, that men suffer, as mentioned above. Rebuttal to opposition, part 1: Not True Equality In the post, Not True Equality, you stated that: your premise is incorrect. All men and women should be treated equally. A woman keeping a man-slave for chattel does not make that slave inferior but if the law does not say that they are equal shell have the right to treat that man as an inferior and keep him as her slave; undermining him in everything. bullying people does not make someone superior, fact is more men bully women than vice versa and the law needs to state that the sexes are equal to diminish harassment from either side. It is your premise that is incorrect. You can not state that you think men and women should be treated equally, when you are arguing in favor of women being given special advantages in society. Secondly, the law does state that the sexes are equal; but, it isnt applied that way. For example, only men are required to register for the draft. If it is equality you seek, then the answer is just that: equalit y. Inequality can not be fixed by advocating for more inequality. Thirdly, where on earth did you get that men bully women, more often than vice-versa? You gave no citations; and, you need to add them. You outright claim its a fact; but, you go on to give no factual evidence. Furthermore, how is that relevant to the discussion at hand? Bullying has no barring on the subject of how the law should treat different groups. Rebuttal to opposition, part 2: Positive discrimination towards women should not be allowed In the post, Positive discrimination towards women should not be allowed, you stated: There is no such thing as international law in the USA, except for treaties which are ratified by the Senate. Consequently, the so-called international law must be subservient to USA law and interpreted accordingly. Thus, positive discrimination does NOT violate international law because international law does NOT exist in the USA. Women should certainly be granted positive discrimination, and men should give every advantage to them. Actually, there is such a thing as international law; and the ones we are talking about have already been agreed to by the United States Congress. It is not, nor must it be subservient to U. S. law. The United States signed the treaty known as the Charter of the United Nations[1]; wherein the United States agreed to be bound by its articles, including chapter IV, wherein the United States agreed to adhere to the resolutions of the General Assembly. One such resolution was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights[2], which stated in Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty One of the rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration, that was alluded to in the post, Positive discrimination towards women should not be allowed was the right to be equals before the law, as set out in Article 7, which states: All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. The United States Congress has already signed this treaty and is therefore obliged to comply with it, at the legislative level. That is why positive discrimination against men is already in violation of our laws and international law; and, why it cant be permitted.

Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper Essays

Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper Essays Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper Essay Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper Essay Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper Joseph Merritt CJA344 July 10,2011 Melba Ferlow- Herrington Cultural Diversity in Criminal Justice Paper This paper will primarily focus on racial disparity in sentencing. While studying the different problems associated with racial disparity we will also look at why racial disparity exsist within sentencing. In society today there are a diversity of citizens, offenders, and leaders within the court system. However, race still plays a big role in the criminal justice system especially during the sentencing portion of a trial or hearing. Although racial dynamics may have changed over time, race still exerts an undeniable presence in the sentencing process. â€Å" This ranges from desperate traffic stops due to racial profiling to imposition of the death penalty based on the race of the victim and / or the offender† ( The Sentencing Project,2007). Here in the United States, African American criminal are over represented compared to this number in the general population. According to (Calderon, 2006) â€Å" The idea of a racially discriminatory process violates the ideals of equal treatment under law as well as under the constitution that these laws were based upon. Racial discrimination within sentencing is often a complex process in total connection with other factors which produce racially discriminatory outcomes in certain situations. Racial discrimination has been a big part of this country for a long time. And just because things have started to change does not mean that perception of the people have chan ged. The sad thing is people who are in a position to initiate a sentence may still believe this way today. The true analogy is the world may change but not all people want to change. Many blacks and Spanish descendants who do not work regular jobs may have this type of information used against them quite often at no fault of their own , but, as some folks say â€Å" Never judge a book by its cover. † According to (Burnham,Sen, 2005) â€Å" The compact for racial justice is a proactive agenda for fairness and unity in our communities, politics, the economy, and the law. It offers a concrete strategy and purpose to reverse racial disparities and move our societies toward full equity, cultural diversity, inclusion, and dignity for all people. Having fairness and unity in our communities would be very good because people of all nationalities would begin to be treated with some form of equity. People in our society need to come to the realization that color is a skin complexion. Whether you are white, black, purple or green, color has not committed any crime but, in the eye sight of people how we look at people and their color will continue to make a problem f or all in years, centuries, and decades to come. There are four reasons as to why racial disparity continues to climb in todays’ society they are Prosecutorial Discretion, Ineffective Assistance of Council, and Procedural Bars, venue and jury selection and racism by jurors. According to (Tabak,1999) â€Å" these reasons apply in cases in which the death penalty may be sought. † When illustrating the use of prosecutorial discretion two crime types come to mind that can be compared they include white collar crimes and city crimes. When white collar crimes are committed the sentencing imposed are normally lesser than of those who commit a city crime. Some of the sentences handed down are unfair. An example of this is a person who are not honest about their taxes will make an agreement with the IRS who know they have committed the crime, and they will not spend any time in jail. Whereas, a person who were caught by law enforcement officers for carrying or selling a small amount of drugs would receive five years in prison. The crimes are both bad crimes and should carry the same type of sentence but, amazingly the two crimes do not carry the same sentence but, if brought before a jury both the crimes would probably get dismissed depending on the number of times the crimes were committed by the persons. Why do people who commit city crimes seem to be punished more harshly than of those who commit crimes that are equally as bad such as fraud, and as a result the crime may never step foot into a court room? There are several other reasons why these problems still exist. Racial Disparity is present within sentencing because of the way ineffective assistance of counsel and the procedural bars. The problem lies within the fact that â€Å"proving ineffective assistance of counsel is structured in a way that is extremely difficult to show that a lawyer is ineffectual†(Tabak,1999). A good example of this case where the defendant Johnny Lee Gates, the defendant lived in a black community all of his life. The defendant was accused of raping a white women, and the jurors listening to the case were all white. In this particular case the lawyer for the defendant should have objected to the jury that was selected for this case, nor should have allowed for the client to be tried by an all-white jury. When looking at the case more closely it was clearly shown that the lawyer did not care nor did the lawyer show any interest in his client’s case. In retrospect, the lawyer of the defendant had already agreed with the prosecutor that his client was already guilty. The next reason why we see Racial Disparity in sentencing is caused by venue and jury selection. The phrase† location is everything† can prove to be a very painful truth for those who are punished for being placed on trial in the wrong area. † It is not uncommon for prosecutors to choose venues for the defendants which result in all-white juries†(Tabak,1999). The second problem of selecting a jury especially in cases involving Afro-Americans defendants is caused by the lack of questioning of jurors. Jurors normally give a correct answer when they are being questioned to show that they are neutral about the case when in fact they have very strong racial feelings concerning the case. The thing that hurt most African-American potiential jurors is the fact that those who would never be willing to impose the death penalty and in cases of capital conviction would vote against the death penalty can be automatically excluded from the jury. † A large percentage of African- Americans are opposed to the death penalty, this is in comparison to the general public†(Tabak,1999). Discriminating against black American’s is not uncommon for prosecutors during their discretionary challenges. The power to use discretion can be blatantly abused by prosecutors. In the case of Albert Jefferson, of Alabama, the prosecutor in the case, used his discretion to oppose 24 of the 26 potential black jurors, which is wrong based on the fact that we as Americans are allowed to have a trial by a jury of our peers. The exclusion of all minorities in juries is a violation against a fair trial for the defendant. When a prosecutor use their discretion to oppose a black juror the burden of proving they discriminated against the black juror is left up to the defendant to prove. Since black potential jurors cannot be excluded from the jury because of their race, they can be dismissed because of their views of the death penalty. Racial disparity in sentencing is caused by racist jurors. Their was a case where the defendant was a black man by the name of William Hance. In his case their was only one black woman juror selected for his case. The woman was against the death penalty however, when the head juror read the decision he left out the black juror vote. Because the woman juror was afraid to say anything the defendant was executed before she spoke out about it. Racial disparity does exist during sentencing of defendants. † It is said that nationwide 90% of those who are convicted for crack cocaine violations are black† (Kennedy,1996). By punishing everybody the same way the racial disparity may subside . our society thrives on the sterotype that this should also be taken into consideration when discussing racial disparity. Society have made a prison or jail stay almost like an† obligatory stage in the life of a young black men† (Mauer,2005). This shows further proof that we â€Å" choose to respond to criminal problems because we are racially determined. â€Å" many people view crime in society as a black problem† (Mauer, 2005). Crime is not just a black problem but, is a problem that everyone must deal with. All of the areas discussed should be paid closer attention in hopes to help others in the future do away with racial and cultural problems in the future. Kennedy, R. (2009). Everything is Race. White Plains, IL: McGraw -Hill. Master, G. (2006). Racial Disparity in Sentencing. Jackson, MS: Thomsom Co.. Mauer, M. (2004). Race, Class, and the Development of criminal justice policy review of policy research. Melborne, FL: McGraw-Hill. Tabak, R. (2009). Racial Discrimination in implementing the Death Penalty. New York,city, NY: thompson publishing co.. www. associated content. com. (may,2008). www. associated content. com. Retrieved from http://associated content. org

UNIT 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

UNIT 5 - Essay Example Shoddy would be forced to comply with the terms of the agreement. This is due to the fact that Hoosier burg has been his territory for so long. He has a well-established clientele. Besides, he has those clients who are faithful to him and his comeback would sweep them all from the plaintiff’s shop. Another reason could be the fact that the sold shoe repair shop has not had a change of name. This somehow still gives Mr. Shoddy an upper hand in the business. As this contract is in place and after its end or stoppage, Bob Bobswell accepts to maintain the confidentiality of WABC’s details such as list of clientele, company operation modalities, or any other private matters. Bob Bobswell accepts to take proper care not to spill out anything accidentally (Emerson, 2009 p.145). It is important to note that, privacy and confidentiality prevents your competitors from knowing your operations therefore increasing your chances. As this agreement is still binding, the respective employee will work to perfection in their quest  to execute their duties diligently as a news anchor whilst keeping to the agreed terms and conditions. It is important that employer pledge commitment to competent service by the employee. WABC willingly accepts to pay Bobswell US$ 100000 in case of any damages. This is in respect to the assurance of compensation by the employer in case of any incident. At the end of this agreement, Bob Bobswell agrees not to engage in a similar venture as WABC for a period of one year around a distance of 50 miles of WABC in New York (Emerson, 2009 p.539). This is in respect to the assurance to the employer that his/her tactics will not be used against him/her. In case WABC fails to commit to its promises, the above conditions will no longer be binding. Rivalry means engaging in any other television venture with like interests. Bob Bobswell agrees to compensate an amount of US$100000 for failure to keep to the terms of this

Bancfirst Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bancfirst - Research Paper Example First is the economic environment because it affects the value of the bank’s financial instruments, securities and loans portfolios and market and credit risk exposure. For example, a decline in economic conditions could lead to increased regulatory scrutiny, increase loan delinquencies, reduce customer borrowing power and eventually lower demand for the bank’s products and services (Bancfirst 14). The demand curve for houses shifted to the right because of the following factors. Firstly, they began with low interest rates that prevailed from 2001 to 2004. These low rates made borrowers increasingly opt for adjustable rate mortgages over fixed-rate mortgages. Then the subprime mortgage industry developed a number of innovative products, e.g. hybrids, to fuel their growth. Hybrids were loans that began with a low fixed rate for an initial period and were then reset to higher variable rates for the remainder of the term of the loan. With such products in the market, borrowers and lenders alike focused only on the borrower’s ability to carry the low initial payments. These factors heightened consumer optimism and confidence which encouraged more borrowing. The equilibrium price went up. The falling prices made homeowners begin to owe more than their home’s value. Borrowers with adjustable rate mortgages were unable to refinance before their rates reset. As borrowers were unable to pay, foreclosures rose sharply and financial institutions that had invested heavily in subprime-related securities went into decline and some collapsed. With some firms collapsed, the supply curve shifted inward. Thus, the equilibrium price for houses went up. The housing crisis began when the US economy was in recession. This is manifested by the fact that the low interest rates that prevailed from 2001 to the end of 2004 were measures implemented by the Federal Reserve to combat the 2001 recession and prevent deflation (Barth et al. 7). The Federal Reserve Chairman says the

Six Sigma Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Six Sigma - Research Paper Example Brief History As a measurement standard, on the one hand, Six Sigma dated back to the 1800s when the German mathematician named Carl Frederick Gauss introduced the notion of normal curve (Islam 17). As a standard in variation, on the other hand, Six Sigma originated in the 1920s when Walter Shewhart, a Bell Telephone Laboratories statistician, proved that the three sigma from the average level are the reference point by which the process in question requires correction (Islam 17). On the other hand of the scale, the history of the praxis of â€Å"Six Sigma† in companies is fairly modern. Its coinage was made only in the 1980s by the Motorola engineer named Bill Smith. According to Islam, Smith is the individual credited in coining such term (17). Smith’s Six Sigma is one of the results from the Motorola’s decision to secure its global leadership. In the same decade, perhaps prior to Smith’s coinage, the executive leaders of the Motorola Company established a four-point plan as a response to Sundry’s â€Å"[o]ur quality stinks† (Barney and McCarty 2). Here, Sundry refers to the feedback expressed by the company’s costumers concerning product quality. ... In the third point plan, one observes that the phrase â€Å"quality improvements† -- probably the early definition of â€Å"Six Sigma† -- is a concept that comes from the principle or theory prominent in TQM. That is to say, Six Sigma in its early inception is not far from similar to TQM in a fundamental manner; the modification only occurs in the TQM’s adaptation or application to the Motorola culture. Definition and Methodology Pande, Neuman, and Cavanagh define the notion of Six Sigma in several ways; they state that Six Sigma is a way, a goal, an approach, and a system (77). First, Six Sigma is essentially a way or method of measuring certain process or processes. This implies that Six Sigma is a technique in which a particular activity or phenomenon (e.g., manufacturing products) is quantitatively measured. Second, Six Sigma is a goal, or has an end, of near perfection, which is quantifiable by 3.4 Defects per Million Opportunities or DPMO (Pande, Neuman, an d Cavanagh 77). As an end, the application of Six Sigma to a specific process or activity largely aims for a 3.4 DPMO; that is to say, for every one million of company products being manufactured, the number of their defects should be within the 3.4 range. Third, Six Sigma is an approach in which the culture of the organization is greatly altered. This definition of Six Sigma is historically grounded; it reminds us of Motorola’s 1980s third point plan -- the function of quality improvements to the company’s culture. Unlike the practice of traditional management, Six Sigma as an approach changes significantly the roles of the members (i.e., top and bottom) of the organization. The functions of leaders and their subordinates are fundamentally modified. Fourth, Six Sigma is

An overview of the Ozone Layer

An overview of the Ozone Layer INTRODUCTION â€Å"THE OZONE LAYER† The ozone layer is a portion of earth atmosphere that contains high levels of ozone. The atmosphere is divided into five layers: the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere. The troposphere is the layer closest to earth and is where all weather happenings occur. The stratosphere is located directly above the troposphere, about 10-50 kilometers above the planet, and houses the ozone layer at an altitude of 20-30 kilometers. The mesosphere is located approximately 50-80 kilometers above the earth, while the thermosphere rests at an altitude of approximately 100-200 kilometers above the earth surface. Finally, the boundary of the outermost layer, the exosphere, extends roughly to 960-1000 kilometers above the earth. The ozone found in our atmosphere is formed by an interaction between oxygen molecules (composed of two oxygen atoms) and ultraviolet light. When ultraviolet light hits these oxygen molecules, the reaction causes the molecules to break apart into single atoms of oxygen (UV light + O2 > O + O). These single atoms of oxygen are very reactive, and a single atom combines with a molecule of oxygen to form ozone (O3), which is composed of three atoms of oxygen (2O + 2O2 > 2O3). Need for OZONE LAYER The ozone layer is essential for human life. It is able to absorb much harmful ultraviolet radiation, preventing penetration to the earth surface. Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is defined as radiation with wavelengths between 290-320 nanometers, which are harmful to life because this radiation can enter cells and destroy the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of many life forms on planet earth. In a sense, the ozone layer can be thought of as a UV filter or our planets built in sunscreen. Without the ozone layer, UV radiation would not be filtered as it reached the surface of the earth. If this happened, cancer would break out and all of the living civilizations, and all species on earth would be in jeopardy. Thus, the ozone layer essentially allows life, as we know it, to exist. A Dobson Unit is a measurement of how thick a specific portion of the ozone layer would be if it were compressed into a single layer at zero degrees Celsius with one unit of atmospheric pressure acting on it (standard temperature and pressure STP). Thus, one Dobson Unit (DU) is defined as .01 mm thickness at standard temperature and pressure. Since the ozone layer over this area would form a 3 mm thick slab, the measurement of the ozone over Labrador is 300 DU. Ozone depletion: Who is responsible? It is important to recognize the sources of ozone depletion before one can fully understand the problem. There are three main contributors to the ozone problem: human activity, natural sources, and volcanic eruptions. Human activity is by far the most prevalent and destructive source of ozone depletion, while threatening volcanic eruptions are less common. Human activity, such as the release of various compounds containing chlorine or bromine, accounts for approximately 75 to 85 percent of ozone damage. Perhaps the most evident and destructive molecule of this description is chloroflourocarbon (CFC). CFCs were first used to clean electronic circuit boards, and as time progressed, were used in aerosols and coolants, such as refrigerators and air conditioners. When CFCs from these products are released into the atmosphere, the destruction begins. As CFCs are emitted, the molecules float toward the ozone rich stratosphere. Then, when UV radiation contacts the CFC molecule, this causes o ne chlorine atom to liberate. This free chlorine then reacts with an ozone (O3) molecule to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and a single oxygen molecule (O2). This reaction can be illustrated by the following chemical equation: Cl + O3 > O2 + ClO. Then, a single oxygen atom reacts with a chlorine monoxide molecule, causing the formation of an oxygen molecule (O2) and a single chlorine atom (O + ClO > Cl + O2). This threatening chlorine atom then continues the cycle and results in further destruction of the ozone layer . Measures have been taken to reduce the amount of CFC emission, but since CFCs have a life span of 20-100 years, previously emitted CFCs will do damage for years to come. Natural sources also contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer, but not nearly as much as human activity. Natural sources can be blamed for approximately 15 to 20 percent of ozone damage. A common natural source of ozone damage is naturally occurring chlorine. Naturally occurring chlorine, like the chlorine released from the reaction between a CFC molecule and UV radiation, also has detrimental effects and poses danger to the earth. Finally, volcanic eruptions are a small contributor to ozone damage, accounting for one to five percent. During large volcanic eruptions, chlorine, as a component of hydrochloric acid (HCl), is released directly into the stratosphere, along with sulfur dioxide. In this case, sulfur dioxide is more harmful than chlorine because it is converted into sulfuric acid aerosols. These aerosols accelerate damaging chemical reactions, which cause chlorine to destroy ozone. Rocket Launches May Need Regulation to Prevent Ozone Depletion As the rocket launch market grows, so will ozone-destroying rocket emissions, if left unregulated, rocket launches by the year 2050 could result in more ozone destruction than was ever realized by CFCs. Since some proposed space efforts would require frequent launches of large rockets over extended periods. In the policy world uncertainty often leads to unnecessary regulation, this could be avoided with a more robust understanding of how rockets affect the ozone layer. Current global rocket launches deplete the ozone layer by no more than a few hundredths of 1 percent annually. But as the space industry grows and other ozone-depleting chemicals decline in the Earths stratosphere, the issue of ozone depletion from rocket launches is expected to move to the forefront. Today, just a handful of NASA space shuttle launches release more ozone-depleting substances in the stratosphere than the entire annual use of CFC-based medical inhalers used to treat asthma and other diseases in the United States and which are now banned. Highly reactive trace-gas molecules known as radicals dominate stratospheric ozone destruction, and a single radical in the stratosphere can destroy up to 10,000 ozone molecules before being deactivated and removed from the stratosphere. Microscopic particles, including soot and aluminum oxide particles emitted by rocket engines, provide chemically active surface areas that increase the rate such radicals leak from their reservoirs and contribute to ozone destruction. Every type of rocket engine causes some ozone loss, and rocket combustion products are the only human sources of ozone-destroying compounds injected directly into the middle and upper stratosphere where the ozone layer resides. Although U.S. science agencies spent millions of dollars to assess the ozone loss potential from a hypothetical fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft a fleet that never materialized much less research has been done to understand the potential range of effects the existing global fleet of rockets might have on the ozone layer. Since 1987 CFCs have been banned from use in aerosol cans, freezer refrigerants and air conditioners. Many scientists expect the stratospheric ozone layer which absorbs more than 90 percent of harmful ultraviolet radiation that can harm humans and ecosystems to return to levels that existed prior to the use of ozone-depleting chemicals by the year 2040. Rockets around the world use a variety of propellants, including solids, liquids and hybrids. Ross said while little is currently known about how they compare to each other with respect to the ozone loss they cause, new studies are needed to provide the parameters required to guide possible regulation of both commercial and government rocket launches in the future. To reduce the risk that unpredictable and more strict ozone regulations would be a hindrance to space access by measuring and modeling exactly how different rocket types affect the ozone layer. Volcanic Aerosol Clouds and Gases Lead To Ozone Destruction The volcanic gases released during eruptions accelerate reactions that lead to ozone destruction. The researchers found that even relatively small volcanic eruptions can destroy ozone and create localised holes in the stratosphere. Previously, scientists had concentrated on the climatic effects of the tiny particles of volcanic sulphate created from the sulphur dioxide gas emitted during an eruption. For the first time, analysing data from a 2000 eruption of the Hekla volcano, Iceland, the researchers discovered that volcanic gases may also lead to the formation of ice and nitric acid particles. This is a critical finding as these particles switch on volcanic chorine gases, accelerating reactions that lead to ozone destruction. Volcanic eruptions which penetrate the stratosphere can lead to the formation of the type of clouds that promote reactions with volcanic chlorine gases gases that destroy stratospheric ozone and lead to the formation of mini-ozone holes. The ozone hole: Why over Antarctica? When the topic of the ozone layer arises, many people immediately think of the hole over Antarctica, but few know why the hole is actually there. In 1985, British scientists discovered this hole. A special condition exists in Antarctica that accelerates the depletion of the ozone layer. Every Arctic winter, a polar vortex forms over Antarctica. A polar vortex is a swirling mass of very cold, stagnant air surrounded by strong westerly wind. Since there is an absence of sun during Arctic winters, the air becomes incredibly cold and the formation of ice clouds occurs. When the sun returns in the spring, the light shining on the nitrogen oxide filled ice particles activates the formation of chlorine. This excess of ozone destroying chlorine rapidly accelerates the depletion of the ozone layer. Finally, when the polar vortex breaks up, the rapid dissolution decreases. It is evident that the effects of the polar vortex are dramatic.For about two month every southern spring, the total ozone declines by about 60% over most of Antarctica. In the core of the ozone hole, more than 75% of the ozone is lost and at some altitudes, the ozone virtually disappeared in October, 1999. The average size of the ozone hole is larger than most continents, including South America, Europe, Australia, and Antarctica, and the maximum size of the ozone hole in 1996 was larger than North America. Finally, one must note that the hole over Antarctica is truly a hole only in the Antarctic spring, when the depletion is extremely severe due to the vortex. The hole above Antarctica has clearly proven to be detrimental. Plankton, organisms that live on carbon, light, and nutrients such as nitrogen, are near the bottom of the food chain, and are accustomed to low levels of UV. In December of 1994, on the island of Bacharcaise off Antarctica, increased levels of UV radiation decreased the number of photoplankton dramatically. Photoplankton are the main source of food for krill, which in turn are the main source of food for various birds and whales in the Antarctic region. At this time, due to the decreased number of photoplankton, the krill level was so low that it could not support the penguin population. Thus, some penguins were forced to travel up to two hundred miles in search of food, but most returned with none. Furthermore, when summer came, only approximately ten of the 1800 hatched penguin chicks survived. This tragedy illustrates the fact that even underwater creatures are not protected from harmful UV rays, and is a perfect example of the entire food chain being affected due to an increase in the UV radiation as a result of the thinning ozone layer. EFFORTS TO REDUCE OZONE DEPLETION Internationalefforts to attempt to limit the production and release of CFCs began once the role of CFCs in ozone destruction was established. In 1987 the United Nations Montreal Protocol was agreed and came into effect in January 1989. The countries that signed up to the protocol aim to phase out the use of CFCs globally. The main CFCs ceased to be produced by the signatories in 1995, and the European Union ceased using them in 1998, except for a very small amount in limited and essential uses such as medical sprays. Although the Montreal Protocol has been successful, it should be noted that without the subsequent amendments, recovery of the ozone hole would have been impossible. Thehydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were developed to replace CFCs. These gases can still damage ozone if they reach the stratosphere, but they are less likely to since their extra hydrogen atom allows them to be destroyed in the lower layers of the atmosphere. These gases are also controlled under the Montreal Protocol and were phased out after 2004. The gases that replaced both the CFCs and HCFCs are hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain any chlorine atoms and so have no ozone depleting effect. Unfortunately, many of them are powerful greenhouse gases and could contribute to global warming if emitted in large quantities. SincetheCFCshaveatmospheric lifetimes of about 50 to 100 years, and take 5 to 10 years to reach the upper atmosphere where they are broken down, the atmosphere reacts slowly to the cuts made in emissions of these gases. Stratospheric ozone should begin to increase as the amount of chlorine and bromine decreases. However, ozone is affected by changes in other gases, such as methane, temperature changes due to climate change, and also indirectly by particles from volcanic eruptions. Compoundscontainingbromine, such as methyl bromide (mainly of natural origin) and the brominated CFCs (halons: used mainly as fire retardants), are also ozone-depleting chemicals. While the total amount of chlorine in the lower atmosphere peaked in 1994, and is now slowly declining, the total amount of bromine is still increasing. An assessment by the World Meteorological Organization in 1998 estimated that global and Antarctic ozone levels would return to pre-1980 levels by 2050, and in 2003 evidence suggested that the rate at which ozone is disappearing had indeed slowed down markedly, although estimates as to when ozone can return to a proper balance have now been revised to the latter half of the 21st century. However, many factors influence ozone, and future levels are not completely predictable. SOCIAL ASPECTS The most obvious, and perhaps most important connection between society and the ozone layer is the fact that scientific research suggests depletion of the ozone layer directly and indirectly endangers the health of the population. Research has focused on connections between the depleting ozone layer and skin cancer, immuno-suppression, cataracts, and snowblindness. Ozone depletion and skin cancer: What is the connection? Exposure to UV radiation increases the risk of skin cancer and causes damage to the DNA in the skin cells. DNA is extremely sensitive to UV radiation, especially UV-B radiation. UV radiation is located in the optical radiation portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, while UV-B radiation is a subdivision of the ultraviolet spectrum and consists of a wavelength of 280 to 315 nanometers. Thus, DNA is especially sensitive to radiation with a wavelength between 280 and 315 nanometers . When UV radiation hits the skin, it can cause the cell to lock up and scramble or delete DNA information. This action causes confusion in the DNA, and the body loses control of the growth and division of the cell. If the conditions are right, the cell may become cancerous. It is important to note that not all affected cells turn into skin cancer, for many can repair themselves. However, continual exposure to UV radiation increases the risk of skin cancer due to cumulative damage of the DNA. Skin cancer can be divided into two categories: melanoma and non-melanoma. The melanoma form of skin cancer is the more dangerous of the two. This type of cancer has the ability to spread quickly throughout the body and invade other cells. On the other hand, non-melanoma skin cancer is not to be taken lightly either, but is a less serious form of the disease. Non-melanoma skin cancers are not usually life threatening, and removal is relatively routine. However, treatment does include radiation therapy or surgery. The concern of many is that sunburn may lead to increased risk of acquiring skin cancer. Some forms of cancer are associated with sunburn, while other forms are not. Melanoma skin cancer is a form that sunburns may play a leading role in. Jan van der Leun, a Dutch scientist, explains that, light hitting the outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, triggers the production of some substances which diffuse into the dermis below. The dermis is filled with blood vessels, and the c hemical substances cause them to dilate, making the skin red and warm to the touch. The bottom line is that UV ray exposure increases the risk of skin cancer. However, controversy lies around the question of whether or not the depletion of the ozone layer will lead to more sunburns, and in turn, more skin cancer. Some scientists suggest that the skin will gradually adapt to higher UV-B levels as the ozone gradually depletes. The opponent to this theory would state that the thinning of the ozone layer would lead to more human UV-B exposure. This increased UV-B exposure would, in turn, increase the damage to the DNA making it difficult for the cell to correct the damage before it divides. This damage accumulates over time and increases the chances that a cell will turn cancerous. In addition, since UV-B radiation damages the immune system, it is much more likely that a cell will turn cancerous.In animal studies, immunosuppressive effects caused by UV-B have indeed been shown to play an important role in the outcome of both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. Furth ermore, states that for the non-melanoma skin cancers, the evidence is compelling and there are estimates that each percentage decrease in the stratospheric ozone will lead to a two percent increase in the incidence of these cancers. Thus, if the ozone depletes by ten percent over a certain time period, 250,000 more people would be affected by these cancers each year. Due to controversy in the scientific community, it is difficult to clearly state whether or not ozone depletion will lead to an increased risk of skin cancers, but scientists agree on the fact that UV-B radiation plays a large role in the formation of cancer. Thus, it may very well be that as the UV filter we call the ozone layer thins, the increased amount of UV-B radiation posed on human skin may contribute to an increased amount of skin cancer. Yet, one can only weigh all the evidence and speculate, for science has yet to provide a cut and dry answer for society to base its judgments on. DISCUSSION Regardless of the details of the arguments, it is obvious that the depletion of the ozone layer is a serious problem that poses many consequences to society. Although scientific controversy exists, the possibility seems high that the depletion of the ozone layer will prove detrimental if action is not taken. For example, research shows the strong possibility of a number of health risks associated with increased UV-B exposure as a direct result of the thinning ozone layer. These health risks include skin cancer, immuno-suppression, cataracts, and snow blindness. Furthermore, the possibility that increased UV-B radiation results in lower crop yields should provide a wakeup call to those who feel the thinning ozone layer is not a problem. For if we are not able to breed UV-B resistant plants, the worlds food supply would become dramatically decreased, resulting in higher levels of famine and malnutrition. Studies from Antarctica tell society that increased UV radiation can directly affect the food chain. Recall the decrease in food supply as a result of reduced levels of photoplankton in Antarctica. This may seem like an isolated, non-significant, and remote problem; however, this incident illustrates the dangers of reduced food supply and alteration of the food chain as a result of the thinning ozone layer. Even though the photoplankton were located at the bottom of the food chain, the whole chain was affected. In the future, problems like this could potentially affect the global food web and result in an overall decrease in food supply. Thus, realize that the dangers posed by ozone depletion are real now, and will be in the future, if action is not taken. Take Action: Teamwork does the trick Although the earth will be able to heal itself if the CFC level continues to stay as it is, the depletion of the ozone layer is still a problem that society should be concerned with. In order for earth to repair the damage humans have posed on the ozone layer, society must take an active role. There are many tasks individuals can involve themselves in to help combat the problem of ozone depletion. First of all, one can simply check product labels for ozone friendly status. Many companies have gone to great lengths to remove CFCs from their products. These products do not do as much damage to the ozone layer, and thus, are denoted as ozone friendly. A collaborative effort by society not using products with CFCs is a major step toward the healing of the ozone layer. Unfortunately, many products still used in society are detrimental to the ozone layer. For example, CFCs marketed under the trade name Freon are used in appliances with refrigerants such as refrigerators and air conditioners. When individuals must dispose of products with refrigerants in them, certain actions must be taken in order to prevent the CFCs from escaping from the disposed product. For example, when an agency, such as a waste hauling company, comes to pick up the unwanted appliance, check to make sure refrigerant-recovery equipment is used by the agency. This equipment allows for the disposal of refrigerants without damage to the ozone layer. Society can also help the problem of ozone depletion through education, as well as through various donations. If individuals contribute time or money to environmental agencies focused on healing the ozone layer, the agencies will be able to organize activities promoting the understanding of the ozone problem. If society is educated through these means, more individual efforts will be taken to make ozone smart decisions such as using ozone friendly products. Although thinning ozone may not directly affect the generation growing up today, future generations depend on the actions taken now. Thus, it is important for society to recognize that the thinning ozone layer is a problem and to take action in order to ensure the safety and survival of future generations. Result It is very much clear from the above discussions that there is an urgent need of the hour to realize the importance of the very critical ozone layer which is just like a god gift to human civilisation. It acts as a protection shield which prevents the dangerous and harmful UV rays entering the earth surface. It job is to filter those harmful particles present in the rays that can lead to severe destruction of mankind, wealth and property. The impact of ozone depletion can be seen on the world`s economy today it has slow down the progress of not only any particular nation rather it is a global phenomenon which is hindering development. According to surveys conducted it has been seen that year 1998 observed max. decline in amount of ozone depletion. SUMMARY The ozone layer is essential for protecting society from harmful UV radiation by acting as a filter. However, this protective layer has been thinning due to three main sources: human activity, natural sources, and volcanoes. Human activity is responsible for the most damage to the ozone layer, thus, society should recognize that much can be done to prevent ozone layer damage. In 1985, in a region over Antarctica, the yearly polar vortex had caused the ozone layer to deplete so greatly, that it could be classified as a hole. In 1996, this hole was large enough to cover Antarctica. The depletion of the ozone layer does not come without problems. Scientific research has suggested the probability that increased UV-B radiation as a result of the thinning ozone layer leads to increased cases of skin cancer, immuno-suppression, cataracts, and snowblindness due to radiation damage of the DNA. Additionally, experiments have shown a correlation between increased UV radiation and crop damage due to UV radiation damaging the plants DNA. Some scientists, however, feel that this will not be a problem in the future due to the possibility of breeding UV resistant crops and plants. Many national governments and agencies recognized the problem of ozone depletion, and therefore, united in 1987 to sign the Montreal Protocol. This agreement was implemented to decrease CFC levels in order to help protect the thinning ozone layer. Clearly, ozone depletion is a dangerous problem due to possible disease outbreaks and famine as a result of increased UV-B radiation. However, society can collectively attempt to combat this problem by relatively simple means such as education and the practice of ozone smart behavior. For if society acts now, future generations will be handed a safe and healthy planet.

Liberalism and Social Contract Essay -- essays research papers fc

Liberalism and Social Contract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Charles Larmore speaks of moral complexity as it exists in a pluralistic sense. The idea of pluralism says that each and every person has their own separate conception of the good as it appears to them. It is I virtually impossible to have to separate entities come up with the same exact concept of the â€Å"Good Life† and what it holds for them. As there are these conflicts ideals that exist in each of us it is possible for our conception of the good to come under attack from competing concepts that are held by others around us. Some one who is Muslim may have a conception of the good that wants to eradicate me and my notion of the good. There needs to exist some centralized thought controlled by the state to protect each individual concept of the good that exists under the people it resides over. If pluralism is true and evident in society then there needs to exist a liberal state to have a manner of political order to protect the differing conceptions of the good that exists within it to protect the personal ideals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main idea that Larmore is trying to set out between the political order and personal ideals is that the Kant’s idea of the right being prior to the good is essential to the protection or cooperation of these two principles. Although this is a theory from Kant it is not a metaphysical like Kant brings up, rather it is a political movement that is necessary for the protection of individual personal ideals. The right of political neutrality must take priority over any individual conception of the good. This justifies political authority as the right of neutrality is more important than the personal good because without any sort of neutrality of the state none of us would be able to keep our own ideals of what the good is and practice it in our lives. This principle of primacy of the right is a political ideal that does not need to extend into all of morality but is necessary in the manner of political order. This primacy is important in the manner that it literally allows for that personal good to exist. For a moment imagine if some one lived in Mooneyville and their conception of the good differs from everyone else around him. It is essential for this mooneyite to give primacy of the right in the political realm so he is able to hold his own conception o... ...king over their own conception of the good. Through this theory I think we have the best chance of holding our individual conception of good without having it attacked for any reason.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This theory of liberalism holds only as far as people in the given society make their own attempts to create and maintain it. The theory engulfing these thoughts are only as good as they are put into practice in society as a whole and by the citizens that live with this inherent pluralism. Most modern societies have made a shift to these liberal states save a few totalitarian states. I am happy to give a way some of my freedoms to shoot another man to allow myself the freedom of worrying about being shot walking down the street. Of course there are always outliers that exist but either they are systematically brought into contract or thrown out of the society by way of prison or in a philosohpy department some where in Ohio. Bibliography Davison & Wolf. The iI dea of a Political Liberalism. Binmore, Ken. Game Theory and the Social Contract, Volume I: Fair Play. Hampton, Jean. Hobbes and The Social Contract Tradition. Larmore, Charles. Patterns of Moral Complexity.

Children Therapy Vs Adult Therapy

Counseling children/adolescents can look very different than counseling adults due to many aspects. Adults have their way of life set In a way that Is hard to change as they get older, but kids are learning who they are and are more open to change. Children start their life depending on others as adults have learned how to live independently. Children and adolescents also cope with their hardships and do not realize that they need help as they have not learned who they can go to if they are having problems.Counseling children/adolescents need certain training and skills to each a level of success that we are looking for in a session. The way of thinking for an adult and a child are deferent in so many ways. The adult brain in adults is fully developed and they are set in their ways that can be hard for a counselor to change. It is hard to transform an adult person when they have gone their whole dealing with issues In a way that may be harmful to themselves or others. Adults have gon e their whole life learning who they can trust and who they cannot trust which makes It difficult for the counselor to gain that trust In an adult client.Children have an easier time trusting as It often takes Just a few minutes to open up to a counselor. Changes in the brain structure and function occur during childhood and adolescence (Henderson & Thompson, 2010). Since their brain is still developing they have not learned their way of handling certain emotions as mentioned in Jean Piglet's four stages of cognitive development. Counselors have to work In a different way when dealing with the thinking processes of adults versus children. Dependency changes to an independent frame of mind as a person gets older.Kids depend on their parents for the basic needs as stated in Measles hierarchy of needs which are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self- actualization. These needs must be met for us to become self-actualization and reach our full poten tial In all areas of development (Henderson ; Thompson, 2010). Adults that did not meet the lower level of physiological needs such as food, shelter, water, and warmth, may not have met their higher order needs such as self-esteem or love and belonging.People that do not have their basic needs met when they ere younger, may have a hard time with their feelings about themselves or others later on in life. Adults realize that certain things in their lives are not going as they would like, so they wonder whether a counselor could help them. If they realize that they have a problem, they decide on their own to request a counseling session. Children however, never realize that they are having trouble and never think of asking their caregiver to request help for them.Children live with their issues, no matter how serious they may be, and they don't have the Ingenuity to go see a oneself. Instead, the parents or other people close to them notice something Is wrong. Counseling children that do not realize that they need help, makes It harder for the counselor to explain to the person why they are In the session. This can place. Adults usually go to counseling because they have made the choice to go there on their own. Having the client realize that they need help makes it easier on the counselor in the session, but this can come with some push back when dealing with children.Counseling children can come with some adversities which unsolder new to the profession may not be ready for and lack the skills needed to take on these challenges. I feel that building a solid foundation with a kid is important early on in their counseling experience and I would like to learn more about strategies and conversations that would help build that relationship. I have built great relationships with my students at school, but that did take some time which I will not have that much time in a counseling session.Having conversations about their troubles may be hard for a kid to put into wo rks or expressions, so I need o learn how to have a conversation with a child that allows expressing their feelings. I would also like training on the legal issues on what needs to be reported to certain agencies so that I know what to legally do in certain situations. Kids these days are getting their hands on drugs that are new developed each day and I would like training on drugs that I need to be aware of so that I am keeping up with the latest drugs that a client may be trying out. In conclusion, counseling children and adults have their differences.

Rogerian Argument – Gun Control

1) What was the purpose of the essay? In your response, explore the deeper meaning of this question. The goal is not just to complete the assignment but instead to convey a message. What do you plan to accomplish with this essay? What do you hope the reader takes away from this argument? This essays purpose is to education people about gun regulations without favoring one side over the other. By using facts and not flat out saying what your stance is, I hope to persuade the reader to not listen to the media and make their own options.2) What did you learn from completing this assignment?  Did you experience a new understanding of the topic? Did you change your perspective after completing the research? The most interesting thing I found was gunfacts. info. That cites contained numerous facts about crime and how different actions used by Government played out. I always figured the UK would have a lower amount of gun violence with its strict regulations, but if fact it only made thin gs worse.3) What difficulties did you encounter during the research, writing, or editing phases of the assignment? I found it hard to remain neutral and not favor my true option.  While I’m sure it easy to figure out, I do see where the other side is coming from. I just don’t think they realize what their idea of â€Å"fixing† the problem would cause.4) What did you enjoy about this assignment? I’ve always enjoyed a good argument. While writing this paper I constantly went back and forth with my wife on what we thought should be implemented. We still disagree on magazine sizes.5) What made you decide to write about this particular topic? Is this a topic that you are discussing in another course? Is this a topic that concerns you in particular?  I know that the Government won’t take away my M-16 until my Military service is complete. I carry a concealed handgun anytime I go out. I could care less what happens to me, but if anyone try’s to hurt my wife they won’t like the outcome.6) Is there anything else you would like for me to know before reading your essay? Fact: Every day 550 rapes, 1,100 murders, and 5,200 other violent crimes are prevented just by showing a gun. In less than 0. 9% of these instances the gun ever actually fired. (Smith) Fact: Guns prevent an estimated 2. 5 million crimes a year or 6,849 every day.Often the gun is never fired and no blood (including the criminal’s) is shed. (Smith) I Would Gladly Pay You Tuesday for a Handgun Today Keeping guns out of the hands of people that wish to do harm to others, should be a goal of congress. This goal would be most effective if it was to be split into three category’s; Control of guns used for concealed carrying, control of guns used for home protection and keeping guns out of the hands of criminals. The last one is the most important, because most criminals don’t procure guns by using legal means.Gunfacts. info claims that peo ple with concealed carry permits are â€Å"5.7 times less likely to be arrested for violent offenses than the general public† (Smith) and â€Å"13. 5 times less likely to be arrested for non-violent offenses than the general public. † (Smith) So what does this tell us? Let’s look at what is required for most people to obtain a permit. In order to get a permit in South Carolina you have to attend a handgun safety class that teaches proper use and laws related to weapons. You must be 21 years old and the step that I think that should apply to anyone who what’s to own a weapon, submit finger prints for a background check.(Slider)It doesn’t seem like that would be too much to ask if you want to own something that could kill another person. So this tells me that perhaps to lower crimes with firearms, we need to educate people about firearms. This education would do the most good if it covered how to store firearms not only to prevent children from handl ing them, but to keep criminals from stealing them. Besides the illegal smuggling of firearms into the United States, criminal’s next popular means of obtaining weapons it through breaking into someone’s home.Properly securing your weapons in a manner that prevents unauthorized use would stop children from taking them into their school and criminals from walking off with them. Educating people on how to handle and clear a firearm would cut down on accidental deaths related to guns. You wouldn’t throw a teenager behind the wheel of a car without training. Before they can even drive they’re taught to look both ways before crossing the road. Why not take this concept with weapons?According to the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers’ Institute the â€Å"overall accidental firearm deaths have  declined more than 70% from an average of 3,000 deaths annually in the 1920s and 1930s to 800 in 2002. † (SAAMI) Before we make new laws to combat gun violence, maybe we should look at the current laws and why there now working.Congressman Mike Pompeo said it best in his response to President Obama’s gun control proposal, â€Å"Is it too much to ask that our President enforce the laws we already have in place rather than try to take guns away from law-abiding citizens? † (Pompeo) Making new laws to supplement the ones we already have doesn’t seem like a productive way to solve a problem.Well, what if we ban guns completely? â€Å"Ironically, firearm use in crimes in the UK has doubled in the decade since handguns were banned. † (Smith) It seems getting rid of guns can’t even solve the problem. So why is it that we think limiting guns will? The biggest advocate for gun ownership is the National Rifle Association (NRA). This organization lobbies politicians to vote against laws that would limit the rights of gun owners. While at some times it may seem like they are doing the right thing, it is the belief of many that they are becoming too involved in legislation.The Business Insider states that †Because the NRA is simultaneously a lobbying firm, a campaign operation, a popular social club, a generous benefactor and an industry group, the group is a juggernaut of influence in Washington. † (Hickey) How can a group as powerful as the NRA be held responsible for where they spend their money and who it influences? The monopoly that the NRA has is hindering the ability to pass law that could curb gun violence. But they are also protecting the rights of citizen to own and carry firearms.It might be this all or nothing stance that the government needs to take on gun control. Just like parents have been saying for years, â€Å"if you can’t play nice, no one gets to use it. † There isn’t a simple fix to the problem at hand. No one answer can please all the groups involved. There are already too many guns in the population to ban them completely an d giving them away freely wouldn’t help either. Even if we educate everyone we still won’t be stop gang violence. Keeping guns out of the hands of criminals needs to start with getting rid of the need to commit crime.The random acts of violence like school shooting shouldn’t dictate the policy that restricts guns. Just like we don’t blame automobiles for drunk drivers, we need to focus on the criminals and not the tools they use. Hickey, Walter. â€Å"How The NRA Became The Most Powerful Special Interest In Washington. † Business Insider. Business Insider, 18 Dec. 2012. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. This article is filled with information on how the NRA became so powerful. I list their methods for financing and what it is involved in. The NRA is the wealthiest and most powerful interest group.  SAAMI.â€Å"Decades of Success In Reducing Firearms Accidents. † Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute, INC. N. p. , 2003. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. This is a simple pamphlet outlining how education has reduced accidental gun deaths. It conveys a lot of information quickly and using easy to read graphs. It takes credit for the decrease in death since the 1920’s. Slider, Gary, Steve Aikens, Eric F. Crist, and Jason Schafer. â€Å"Hand Gun Laws. † Handgunlaw. PC Solutions, Inc, 16 Jan. 2013. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. This is any handgun owner’s best resource.It has everything someone would need to know about the laws in every state and how they apply to gun owners. By simply clicking on your state you can see what other states honor your permit and clicking on other states will tell you their regulations if you want to travel there. Smith, Guy. â€Å"Gun Facts. † Gun Facts. N. p. , 10th Apr. 2012. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. This is an invaluable resource for anyone looking for statistics on guns. It covers other countries and spans over numerous years to provide comprehensive information. His approach of using myths a nd then outlining the facts about it is very enlightening.

Islam and Postmodernism Essays

Islam and Postmodernism Essays Islam and Postmodernism Essay Islam and Postmodernism Essay p. 119. 19. Personal interview via e-mail, 23 October 2001. 20. Distorted Imagination: Lessons from the Rushdie Affair, Grey Seal, London, 1990. 21. Malise Ruthven, A Satanic Affair: Salman Rushdie and the Wrath of Islam, The Hogarth Press, London, 1990; revised edition, p. 186. 22. Postmodernism and the Other, Pluto Press, London, 1998. 23. Sardar with Merryl Wyn Davies and Ashis Nandy, Barbaric Others: A Manifesto on Western Racism, Pluto Press, London, 1993; Westview Press, Boulder, Colo. 1993, p. 3. 24. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘On Serpents, Inevitability and the South Asian Imagination’, Futures, 24 (9), pp. 942–9 (November 1992). 25. ‘When the Pendulum Comes to Rest’, in Sheila M. Moorcroft (editor), Visions for the 21st Century, Adamantine Press, London, 1992, p. 101. 26. Distorted Imagination, p. 276. 27. See Ziauddin Sardar, ‘Development and the Location of Eurocentism’, in Ronaldo Munck and Denis O’Hearn (editors) Critical Devel opment Theory: Contributions to a New Paradigm, Zed Books, London, 1999. 28. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘alt. civilisation. aq: cyberspace as the darker side of the West’, in Ziauddin Sardar and Jerome R. Ravetz (editors), Cyberfutures: Culture and Politics on the Information Superhighway, Pluto Press, London, 1996; also David Bell and Barbara M. Kennedy (editors), The Cyberspace Reader, Routledge, London, 2000, pp. 723–52. 29. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘Asian Cultures: Between Programmed and Desired Futures’, in Eleonora Masini and Yogesh Atal (editors), The Futures of Asian Cultures, Unesco, Bangkok, 1993; and Unesco, The Futures of Cultures, Unesco, Paris, 1994. 30. Personal interview via e-mail, 23 October 2001. 31. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘Paper, Printing and Compact Discs: The Making and Unmaking of Islamic Culture’, Media, Culture, Society, 15, pp. 43–59 (1992); see also Chapter 6 of this book. 32. Ibid. , p. 46. 33. ‘Currying Favour With Tradition’, Herald (Glasgow), 29 April 1998, p. 27. 34. Postmodernism and the Other, p. 281. 35. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘What Makes a University Islamic? ’, in Sardar (editor) How We Know: Ilm and the Revival of Knowledge, Grey Seal, London, 1991. 36. Ziauddin Sardar, ‘Waiting for Rain’, New Scientist, 15 December 2001. 37. Originally published in Arts and the Islamic World, 21, pp. 5–7 (Spring 1992); a revised version appeared in New Renaissance, 8 (1), pp. 14–16, 1998. 38. ‘Currying Favour With Tradition’. Islam 1 Rethinking Islam Serious rethinking within Islam is long overdue. Muslims have been comfortably relying, or rather falling back, on age-old interpretations for much too long . This is why we feel so painful in the contemporary world, so uncomfortable with modernity. Scholars and thinkers have been suggesting for well over a century that we need to make a serious attempt at ijtihad, at reasoned struggle and rethinking, to reform Islam. At the beginning of the last century, Jamaluddin Afghani and Muhammad Abduh led the call for a new ijtihad; and along the way many notable intellectuals, academics and sages have added to this plea – not least Muhammad Iqbal, Malik bin Nabbi and Abdul Qadir Audah. Yet, ijtihad is one thing Muslim societies have singularly failed to undertake. Why? The ‘why’ has acquired an added urgency after 11 September. What the fateful events of that day reveal, more than anything else, is the distance we have travelled away from the spirit and import of Islam. Far from being a liberating force, a kinetic social, cultural and intellectual dynamic for equality, justice and humane values, Islam seems to have acquired a pathological strain. Indeed, it seems to me that we have internalised all those historic and contemporary western representations of Islam and Muslims that have been demonising us for centuries. We now actually wear the garb, I have to confess, of the very demons that the west has been projecting on our collective personality. But to blame the west, or a notion of instrumental modernity that is all but alien to us, would be a lazy option. True, the west, and particularly America, has a great deal to answer for. And Muslims are quick to point a finger at the injustices committed by American and European foreign policies and hegemonic tendencies. However, that is only a part, and in my opinion not an insurmountable part, of the malaise. Hegemony is not always imposed; sometimes, it is invited. The internal situation within Islam is an open invitation. We have failed to respond to the summons to ijtihad for some very profound reasons. Prime amongst these is the fact that the context of our sacred texts – the Qur’an and the examples of the Prophet Muhammad, our absolute frame of reference – has been frozen in history. One can only have an interpretative relationship with a text 27 28 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures – even more so if the text is perceived to be eternal. But if the interpretative context of the text is never our context, not our own time, then its interpretation can hardly have any real meaning or significance for us as we are now. Historic interpretations constantly drag us back to history, to frozen and ossified contexts of long ago; worse, to perceived and romanticised contexts that have not even existed in history. This is why, while Muslims have a strong emotional attachment to Islam, Islam per se, as a worldview and system of ethics, has little or no direct relevance to their daily lives apart from the obvious concerns of rituals and worship. Ijtihad and fresh thinking have not been possible because there is no context within which they can actually take place. The freezing of interpretation, the closure of ‘the gates of ijtihad’, has had a devastating effect on Muslim thought and action. In particular, it has produced what I can only describe as three metaphysical catastrophes: the elevation of the Shari’ah to the level of the Divine, with the consequent removal of agency from the believers, and the equation of Islam with the state. Let me elaborate. Most Muslims consider the Shari’ah, commonly translated as ‘Islamic law’, to be divine. Yet, there is nothing divine about the Shari’ah. The only thing that can legitimately be described as divine in Islam is the Qur’an. The Shari’ah is a human construction; an attempt to understand the divine will in a particular context. This is why the bulk of the Shari’ah actually consists of fiqh or jurisprudence, which is nothing more than legal opinion of classical jurists. The very term fiqh was not in vogue before the Abbasid period when it was actually formulated and codified. But when fiqh assumed its systematic legal form, it incorporated three vital aspects of Muslim society of the Abbasid period. At that juncture, Muslim history was in its expansionist phase, and fiqh ncorporated the logic of Muslim imperialism of that time. The fiqh rulings on apostasy, for example, derive not from the Qur’an but from this logic. Moreover, the world was simple and could easily be divided into black and white: hence, the division of the world into dar al-Islam and dar al-harb. Furthermore, as the framers of law were not by this stage managers of society, the law became merely theory which could not be modified – the framers of the law were unable to see where the faults lay and what aspect of the law needed fresh thinking and reformulation. Thus fiqh, as we know it today, evolved on the basis of a division between those who were governing and set themselves apart from society and those who were framing the law; the epistemological Rethinking Islam 29 assumptions of a ‘golden’ phase of Muslim history also came into play. When we describe the Shari’ah as divine, we actually provide divine sanctions for the rulings of bygone fiqh. What this means in reality is that when Muslim countries apply or impose the Shari’ah – which is what Muslims from Indonesia to Nigeria demand – the contradictions that were inherent in the formulation and evolution of fiqh come to the fore. That is why wherever the Shari’ah is imposed – that is, fiqhi legislation is applied, out of context from the time when it was formulated and out of step with ours – Muslim societies acquire a medieval feel. We can see that in Saudi Arabia, the Sudan and the Taliban Afghanistan. When narrow adherence to fiqh, to the dictates of this or that school of thought, whether it has any relevance to real world or not, becomes the norm, ossification sets in. The Shari’ah will solve all our problems’ becomes the common sentiment; and it becomes necessary for a group with vested interests in this notion of the Shari’ah to preserve its territory, the source of its power and prestige, at all costs. An outmoded body of law is thus equated with the Shari’ah, and criticism is shunned and outlawed by appealing to its divine nature. The elevation of the Shari’ah to the divine level also means the believers themselves have no agency: since the law is a priori given, people themselves have nothing to do except to follow it. Believers thus become passive receivers rather than active seekers of truth. In reality, the Shari’ah is nothing more than a set of principles, a framework of values, that provide Muslim societies with guidance. But these sets of principles and values are not a static given but are dynamically derived within changing contexts. As such, the Shari’ah is a problem-solving methodology rather than law. 1 It requires the believers to exert themselves and constantly reinterpret the Qur’an and look at the life of the Prophet Muhammad with ever changing fresh eyes. Indeed, the Qur’an has to be reinterpreted from epoch to epoch – which means that the Shari’ah, and by extension Islam itself, has to be reformulated with changing contexts. 2 The only thing that remains constant in Islam is the text of the Qur’an itself – its concepts providing the anchor for ever changing interpretations. Islam is not so much a religion as an integrative worldview: that is to say, it integrates all aspects of reality by providing a moral perspective on every aspect of human endeavour. Islam does not provide ready-made answers to all human problems; it provides a moral and just perspective within which Muslims must endeavour to 30 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures find answers to all human problems. But if everything is a priori given, in the shape of a divine Shari’ah, then Islam is reduced to a totalistic ideology. Indeed, this is exactly what the Islamic movements – in particularly Jamaat-e-Islami (both Pakistani and Indian varieties) and the Muslim Brotherhood – have reduced Islam to. Which brings me to the third metaphysical catastrophe. Place this ideology within a nation-state, with divinely attributed Shari’ah at its centre, and you have an ‘Islamic state’. All contemporary ‘Islamic states’, from Iran, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan to aspiring Pakistan, are based on this ridiculous assumption. But once Islam, as an ideology, becomes a programme of action of a vested group, it looses its humanity and becomes a battlefield where morality, reason and justice are readily sacrificed at the altar of emotions. Moreover, the step from a totalistic ideology to a totalitarian order where every human situation is open to state arbitration is a small one. The transformation of Islam into a state-based political ideology not only deprives it of all its moral and ethical content, it also debunks most of Muslim history as un-Islamic. Invariably, when Islamists rediscover a ‘golden’ past, they do so only in order to disdain the present and mock the future. All we are left with is messianic chaos, as we saw so vividly in the Taliban regime, where all politics as the domain of action is paralysed and meaningless pieties become the foundational truth of the state. The totalitarian vision of Islam as a state thus transforms Muslim politics into a metaphysics: in such an enterprise, every action can be justified as ‘Islamic’ by the dictates of political expediency as we witnessed in revolutionary Iran. The three metaphysical catastrophes are accentuated by an overall process of reduction that has become the norm in Muslim societies. The reductive process itself is also not new; but now it has reached such an absurd state that the very ideas that are supposed to take Muslim societies towards humane values now actually take them in the opposite direction. From the subtle beauty of a perennial challenge to construct justice through mercy and compassion, we get mechanistic formulae fixated with the extremes repeated by people convinced they have no duty to think for themselves because all questions have been answered for them by the classical ulema, far better men long dead. And because everything carries the brand name of Islam, to question it, or argue against it, is tantamount to voting for sin. The process of reduction started with the very notion of alim (scholar) itself. Just who is an alim? hat makes him an authority? Rethinking Islam 31 In early Islam, an alim was anyone who acquired ilm, or knowledge, which was itself described in a broad sense. We can see that in the early classifications of knowledge by such scholars as al-Kindi, alFarabi, ibn Sina, al-Ghazzali and ibn Khauldun. Indeed, both the definition of knowledge and its classification was a major intellectual activity in classical Islam. 3 So all learned men, scientist s as well as philosophers, scholars as well as theologians, constituted the ulema. But after the ‘gates of ijtihad’ were closed during the Abbasid era, ilm was increasing reduced to religious knowledge and the ulema came to constitute only religious scholars. Similarly, the idea of ijma, the central notion of communal life in Islam, has been reduced to the consensus of a select few. Ijma literally means consensus of the people. The concept dates back to the practice of Prophet Muhammad himself as leader of the original polity of Muslims. When the Prophet Muhammad wanted to reach a decision, he would call the whole Muslim community – then, admittedly not very large – to the mosque. A discussion would ensue; arguments for and against would be presented. Finally, the entire gathering would reach a consensus. Thus, a democratic spirit was central to communal and political life in early Islam. But over time the clerics and religious scholars have removed the people from the equation – and reduced ijma to ‘the consensus of the religious scholars’. Not surprisingly, authoritarianism, theocracy and despotism reign supreme in the Muslim world. The political domain finds its model in what has become the accepted practice and metier of the authoritatively ‘religious’ adepts, those who claim the monopoly of the exposition of Islam. Obscurantist mullahs, in the guise of the ulema, dominate Muslim societies and circumscribe them with fanaticism and absurdly reductive logic. Numerous other concepts have gone through a similar process of reduction. The concept of ummah, the global spiritual community of Muslims, has been reduced to the ideals of a nation state: ‘my country right or wrong’ has been transposed to read ‘my ummah right or wrong’. So even despots like Saddam Hussein are now defended on the basis of ‘ummah consciousness’ and ‘unity of the ummah’. Jihad has now been reduced to the single meaning of ‘Holy War’. This translation is perverse not only because the concept’s spiritual, intellectual and social components have been stripped away, but because it has been reduced to war by any means, including terrorism. So anyone can now declare jihad on anyone, without any ethical or moral rhyme or reason. Nothing could be 32 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures more perverted, or pathologically more distant from the initial meaning of jihad. Its other connotations, including personal struggle, intellectual endeavour, and social construction have all but evaporated. Istislah, normally rendered as ‘public interest’ and a major source of Islamic law, has all but disappeared from Muslim consciousness. And ijtihad, as I have suggested, has now been reduced to little more than a pious desire. But the violence performed to sacred Muslim concepts is insignificant compared to the reductive way the Qur’an and the sayings and examples of the Prophet Muhammad are bandied about. What the late Muslim scholar Fazlur Rahman called the ‘atomistic’ treatment of the Qur’an is now the norm: almost anything and everything is justified by quoting individual bits of verses out of context. 4 After the September 11 event, for example, a number of Taliban supporters, including a few in Britain, justified their actions by quoting the following verse: ‘We will put terror into the hearts of the unbelievers. They serve other gods for whom no sanction has been revealed. Hell shall be their home’ (3:149). Yet, the apparent meaning attributed to this verse could not be further from the true spirit of the Qur’an. In this particular verse, the Qur’an is addressing the Prophet Muhammad himself. It was revealed during the battle of Uhad, when the small and ill-equipped army of the Prophet faced a much larger and better-equipped enemy. He was concerned about the outcome of the battle. The Qur’an reassures him and promises that the enemy will be terrified by the Prophet’s unprofessional army. Seen in its context, it is not a general instruction to all Muslims; it is a commentary on what was happening at that time. Similarly hadith are quoted to justify the most extreme behaviours. And the Prophet’s own appearance, his beard and clothes, have been turned into a fetish: so now it is not just obligatory for a ‘good Muslim’ to have a beard, but its length and shape must also conform to dictates! The Prophet has been reduced to signs and symbols – the spirit of his behaviour, the moral and ethical dimensions of his actions, his humility and compassion, the general principles he advocated, have all been subsumed by the logic of absurd reduction. The accumulative effect of the metaphysical catastrophes and endless reduction has transformed the cherished tenets of Islam into instruments of militant expediency and moral bankruptcy. For over two decades, I have been arguing that Muslim civilisation is now so fragmented and shattered that we have to rebuild it, ‘brick by brick’. It is now obvious that Islam itself has to be rethought, idea by idea. Rethinking Islam 33 We need to begin with the simple fact that Muslims have no monopoly on truth, on what is right, on what is good, on justice, nor on the intellectual and moral reflexes that promote these necessities. Like the rest of humanity, we have to struggle to achieve them using our own sacred notions and con cepts as tools for understanding and reshaping contemporary reality. The way to a fresh, contemporary appreciation of Islam requires confronting the metaphysical catastrophes and moving away from reduction to synthesis. Primarily, this requires Muslims, as individuals and communities, to reclaim agency: to insist on their right and duty, as believers and knowledgeable people, to interpret and reinterpret the basic sources of Islam: to question what now goes under the general rubric of Shari’ah, to declare that much of fiqh is now dangerously obsolete, to stand up to the absurd notion of an Islam confined by a geographically bound state. We cannot, if we really value our faith, leave its exposition in the hands of undereducated elites, religious scholars whose lack of comprehension of the contemporary world is usually matched only by their disdain and contempt for all its ideas and cultural products. Islam has been permitted to languish as the professional domain of people more familiar with the world of the eleventh century than that of the twenty-first century we now inhabit. And we cannot allow this class to bury the noble idea of ijtihad in frozen and distant history. Ordinary Muslims around the world who have concerns, questions and considerable moral dilemmas about the current state of affairs of Islam must reclaim the basic concepts of Islam and reframe them in a broader context. Ijma must mean consensus of all citizens leading to participatory and accountable governance. Jihad must be understood in its complete spiritual meaning as the struggle for peace and justice as a lived reality for all people everywhere. And the notion of the ummah must be refined so it becomes something more than a mere reductive abstraction. As Anwar Ibrahim has argued, the ummah is not ‘merely the community of all those who profess to be Muslims’; rather, it is a ‘moral conception of how Muslims should become a community in relation to each other, other communities and the natural world’. Which means ummah incorporates not just the Muslims, but justice-seeking and oppressed people everywhere. 6 In a sense, the movement towards synthesis is an advance towards the primary meaning and message of Islam – as a moral and ethical way of looking at and shaping the world, as a 4 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures domain of peaceful civic culture, a participatory endeavour, and a holistic mode of knowing, being and doing. If the events of 11 September unleash the best intentions, the essential values of Islam, the phoenix will truly have arisen from the ashes of the twin towers. Notes 1. For a more elaborate exposition, see ‘The Shari’ah as Problem-Solving Methodology’, Cha pter 5 of Ziauddin Sardar, Islamic Futures: The Shape of Ideas to Come, Mansell, London, 1985. 2. I first argued this thesis in The Future of Muslim Civilisation, Croom Helm, London, 1979; second edition, Mansell, London, 1987. 3. See Franz Rosenthal, Knowledge Triumphant, Brill, Leiden, 1970. 4. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, Biblioteca Islamica, Chicago, 1980. 5. Ziuaddin Sardar, The Future of Muslim Civilisation. 6. Anwar Ibrahim, ‘The Ummah and Tomorrow’s World’, Futures, 23 (3), pp. 302–10 (April 1991). Source: Originally published in Seminar, 509, January 2002, pp. 48–51. 2 Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation When thinking and writing about Islam, most Muslim intellectuals, both modernists and traditionalists, work within a very narrow and confining canvas. Islam is often presented as a religious outlook: the modernists are happy to confine Islam to the boundaries of personal piety, belief and rituals: while the traditionalists always describe Islam as ‘a complete way of life’. What is meant by the phrase is that Islam touches all aspects of human living – particularly the social, economic, educational and political behaviour of man. However, while these approaches to the study of Islam are extremely useful, they are restrictive. Each approach itself determines the boundary of exposition: note that in their monumental output, both Maulana Maududi and Syed Qutb find no space for discussing epistemology and science, technology and environment, urbanisation and development – all burning, indeed pressing, issues for contemporary Muslim societies as well as for the dominant west. Moreover, the picture of the ‘Islamic way of life’ that emerges from these authors is a very atomised and segregated one. While Islam is presented as a complete way of life, the various aspects of human living, economic activity, political behaviour, educational development, are treated in isolation from each other as though each had no real bearing on the others. There is no integrated, interdisciplinary methodology in action in Maulana Maududi’s or Syed Qutb’s work. The result is that while it is repeatedly emphasised that Islam is a ‘complete way of life’, nowhere is it really represented as an integrated, holistic worldview. More recently, Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and Sheikh Murtada Mutahhari showed much promise in developing an interdisciplinary methodology from within the realms of traditional scholars. Sayyid Baqir al-Sadr did much work on an integrated Islamic political economy. Sheikh Mutahhari, with his strong background in philosophy and irfan (gnosis) tried to apply these to contemporary sociopolitical realities. Both these scholars were martyred in their forties, cutting short their promising initiatives. In a different vein, this time from the ranks of modern scholars, Ali 35 36 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures Shariati devoted much effort to developing a multidisciplinary base for an Islamic worldview. His hectic schedule and early death did not allow him to systematise his thoughts into a theory and his ideas remain scattered in numerous articles and lectures. The more avant-garde Muslim intellectuals have sought to project Islam as an ethical system. For example, in his essay ‘Islam, the concept of religion and the foundation of ethics and morality’, Naqib al-Attas argues that din of Islam can be reduced to four primary significations: indebtedness, submissiveness, judicial power and natural inclination. He then proceeds to present Islam as a ‘natural’ social and ethical system. Parvez Manzoor equates the Shari’ah to an ethical system and has used his analysis to develop a contemporary Islamic theory of the environment. 2 The exposition of Islam as an ethical system takes us a step further. An underlying ethical system can permeate all human endeavours an d questions of ethics can be raised in all contemporary situations whether they involve the impact of science on Muslim societies or of technology on the natural environment or of planning on the built environment. And, because everything is examined from the perspective of a total ethical system, a more integrated and coherent exposition of Islam comes to the fore. However, reducing Islam to one denominator, namely ethics, is still very confining. The excessive concern with ethics generates an illusion of moral superiority and ignorance of power realities. In Islam, ethics is a pragmatic concern: it must shape individual and social behaviour. But methodologically, discussion and analysis of ethical criteria – what is right and wrong, what are our duties and obligations – produces a strange mirage. It leads to the erroneous belief that by doing right, by being righteous, by fulfilling our duty, Muslim societies, and hence Islam, will triumph and become dominant. Ethical analysis substitutes piety for pragmatic policy, morality for power, and righteousness for bold and imaginative planning. Piety, morality, righteousness are the beginning of Islam: they are not an end in themselves. Ethics is our navigational equipment: it is not the end of our journey. Ethics ensures that we tread the right path, avoiding pitfalls and quicksand, and reach our intended destination. But within the ethical geography, there are no limitations to where we take ourselves and our societies. We can only give our imagination and intellect full reign, something that is demanded of us by God, if we think, conceive and study Islam as a living, dynamic civilisation of the future. Only by Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation 37 approaching Islam as a civilisation can we really do full justice to the din of Islam. It is worth noting that when Naquib al-Attas discusses the many manifestations of din, he stops short of noting that one connotation of din is medina, the city state which marked the beginning of Islamic civilisation. From Medina onwards, Islam ceased to be just a religion or an ethical system or even a political institution – it became a civilisation. And it has continued to be a civilisation since: Islam was a civilisation as much in its ‘Golden Age’ as during its nadir under colonialism; and, it continues to be a civilisation now that the Muslim world has been divided into 50 or so Muslim ‘nation-states’. However, whenever Muslim writers and intellectuals have discussed Islam as a civilisation, it has always been as a historic civilisation; never as a contemporary or a future civilisation. By limiting the civilisational aspects of Islam to history, they have neglected its future. Moreover, they have concentrated discussion on either the self-evident aspects of Islam such as ethics and belief or further increased the fossilisation of the already stagnant body of jurisprudence, legal thought and scholastic philosophy. Unless we break this suffocating mould, Muslim societies are doomed to a marginalised existence. Furthermore, only by presenting Islam as a living, dynamic civilisation, with all that that entails, can we really meet the challenge that comes to us from the west. Encounters in the arena of religion and theology, philosophy and ethics, may generate good intellectual writings, but, essentially, they are marginal. But an encounter of two civilisations, seeking rapprochement as well as asserting their own identities, is a completely different phenomenon. Only such an engagement can produce a beneficial dialogue and mutual respect between two equals. At this juncture of our history, however, we are not in a position to present Islam as a total civilisation. Having failed to do our homework in this area, we find ourselves as a rather truncated and limping civilisation. Many of our essential civilisational features, having been neglected for over four centuries, are dormant and in urgent need of serious surgery. Islam and Muslim societies are like a magnificent but old building on which time, and years of neglect, have taken their toll. The foundations are very solid, but the brickwork needs urgent attention. We need to reconstruct the Muslim civilisation; almost brick by brick, rebuilding the House of Islam from the foundations upwards. 38 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures The reconstruction of Muslim civilisation is essentially a process of elaborating the worldview of Islam. The ‘complete way of life’ group of scholars are content with restating the classical and traditional positions as if the old jurists and scholars had solved all the problems of humanity for all time! The avant-garde seems to believe that casting contemporary concerns in ethical moulds is enough. We need to go beyond all this and produce distinctively Islamic alternatives and solutions to the vast array of problems faced by our societies. We need to do this by producing a whole array of theoretical alternatives and by demonstrating these alternatives practically. I am talking not of abstract, metaphysical theories: we have enough of these. I am talking about a pragmatic theoretical edifice that gives contemporary meaning to the eternal guidelines laid down in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. I am talking about a body of theory that can be translated into policy statements and produce practical models that can guide us towards a complete state of Islam. The reconstruction of Muslim civilisation is both a theoretical and a practical process, each feeding on the other; theory shaping practice and behaviour and practice polishing the theory. But even before we take the initial steps towards reconstruction of our civilisation, we must begin to think, individually and collectively, like a civilisation. Our commitment and aspirations should be directed not towards some parochial objectives, but towards a civilisational plane. We, the Muslim ummah, are a holistic aggregate – despite the fact that we at present live in different polities, come from a kaleidoscope of ethnic backgrounds, hold and express a complex array of opinions and ideas, are united by a ingle worldview, the hallmark of our civilisation. That means that our political differences are only temporary; and we should behave as though they are temporary. It also means that the old differences of opinion and expression between us should be placed on the lowest rung of history. While history should always be with us, we should not live in it. In general, civilisations have been studied in terms of large historic units. For example, in his A Study of History, A. J. Toynbee3 points to 21 civilisations in the known history of the world, each with distinctive characteristics, but all sharing certain features or qualities which enable them to be distinguished as members of the same category. Sociologists speak of ‘modern civilisation’, by which is meant contemporary urban and industrialised societies. These approaches to the study of civilisation ‘fix’ them to a particular Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation 39 historic epoch. Thus, by definition, civilisation becomes a historic entity with a finite lifetime. Ibn Khaldun spoke of the rise and fall of civilisations thus presenting a cyclic view of history. 4 But Muslim civilisation is no more fixed to a particular historic epoch or geographical space than the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The Muslim civilisation is a historic continuum; it has existed in the past, it exists today and it will exist in the future. Each step towards the future requires a further elaboration of the worldview of Islam, an invocation of the dynamic principle of ijtihad which enables the Muslim civilisation to tune in to the changing circumstances. Whether it is rising or declining, or indeed purely static, depends on the effort exerted by the Muslim ummah to understand and elaborate the teachings of Islam to meet the new challenges. There are essentially seven major challenges before us. However, none of these can be tackled in isolation. If we were to describe the Muslim civilisation as a flower-shaped schema, then we can identify the seven areas which need contemporary elaboration. The centre of the flower, the core, represents the Islamic worldview: it produces seeds for future growth and evelopment. The core is surrounded by two concentric circles representing the major manifestations of the Islamic worldview: epistemology and the Shari’ah or law. The four primary petals represent the major external expressions of the Weltanschauung: political and social structures; economic enterprise; science and technology; and environment. The flower also has a number of secondary petals representing such areas as architecture, art, education, community development, social behaviour and so on, but here we will limit our discussion to the primary petals. A detailed elaboration of the ‘flower’ and hence the development of a theoretical edifice, practical models and distinctive methodologies is an essential prerequisite for the reconstruction of Muslim civilisation. For example, the worldview of Islam needs to be continuously elaborated so that we can understand new developments vis-a-vis Islam. Essentially, the worldview of Islam consists of a few principles and a matrix of concepts to be found in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The principles outline the general rules of behaviour and development and chalk out the general boundaries within which the Muslim civilisation has to grow and flourish. The conceptual matrix performs two basic functions: it acts as a standard of measure, a barometer if you like, of the ‘Islamicness’ of a particular situation, and it serves as a basis for the elaboration of the worldview of Islam. 40 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures Figure 2. 1 The challenges before us The principles of the Islamic worldview, largely related to social, economic and political behaviour, have been well discussed in Islamic literature. For example, the principle forbidding riba (all forms of usury) has been written about extensively. However, to turn it into a fully-fledged theory, and develop working models from it, we need to operationalise and develop a contemporary understanding of the relevant concepts from the conceptual matrix. For example, we need to have a detailed and analytical understanding of such concepts as shura (co-operating for the good), zakah (alms), and zulm (tyranny). Each one of these and many other concepts needs to be elaborated so that it becomes a fully developed body of knowledge from which further theoretical understanding can be derived and practical models developed. The most interesting feature of the worldview of Islam is that it presents an interactive and integrated outlook. Therefore, a contemporary understanding of one concept, say istislah (public Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation 41 interest), may lead to a theoretical understanding of economics, science, technology, environment and politics. Similarly, lack of understanding of a key concept may thwart developments in all these fields. A primary task, without which all future work will be hampered, is the development of a contemporary theory of Islamic epistemology. Epistemology, or theory of knowledge, is in fact nothing more than an expression of a worldview. All great Muslim scholars of the ‘Golden Age’ devoted their talents and time to this task: for epistemology permeates all aspects of individual, societal and civilisational behaviour. 5 Without a distinct epistemology, a unique civilisation is impossible. Without a way of knowing that is identifiably Islamic we can neither elaborate the worldview of Islam nor put an Islamic stamp on contemporary issues. For the Muslim scholars of the past, an Islamic civilisation was inconceivable without a fully-fledged epistemology; hence their preoccupation with the classification of knowledge. Without the same concern amongst contemporary Muslim scholars and intellectuals, there is little hope of a Muslim civilisation of the future. Why is epistemology so important? Epistemology is vital because it is the major operator which transforms the vision of a worldview into a reality. When we think about the nature of knowledge, what we are doing is indirectly reflecting on the principles according to which society is organised. Epistemology and societal structures feed on each other: when we manipulate images of society, when we develop and erect social, economic, political, scientific and technological structures, we are taking a cue from our conception of knowledge. This is why the Islamic concept of knowledge, ilm, is so central to the Muslim civilisation. However, for some reason, thinking about the nature of knowledge in western societies has been an abstract and obscure endeavour; it has led the western philosophers to a paralysis of mind. But as the history of Islam demonstrates so clearly, issues of Islamic epistemology are pragmatic issues; and we need to develop a highly pragmatic, contemporary epistemology of Islam. Classical scholars like al-Ghazzali, al-Baruni, al-Farabi, al-Khawarizmi, and others, have laid a solid foundation for a practical epistemology of Islam. Their work has to be dragged from history and given a dynamic, modern form. It is one of the most urgent tasks awaiting the attention of Muslim scholars. 42 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures The Shari’ah, or Islamic law, too is a pragmatic concern. Shari’ah, rather than theology, has been the primary contribution of Muslim civilisation to human development. Like epistemology, the Shari’ah touches every aspect of Muslim society. It is law and ethics rolled into one. As Parvez Manzoor says, all contradictions of internalised ethics and externalised law, of concealed intentions and revealed actions are resolved in the allembracing actionalism of the Shari’ah because it is both a doctrine and a path. It is simultaneously a manifestation of divine will and that of human resolve to be an agent of that will. It is eternal (anchored in God’s revelation) and temporal (enacted in human history); stable (Qur’an and Sunnah ) and dynamic (ijma and ijtihad); din (religion) and muamalah (social interaction); divine gift and human prayer all at once. It is the vary basis of the religion itself: to be Muslim is to accept the injunction of the Shari’ah. 6 Yet, we have allowed such a paramount and all-pervasive manifestation of the Islamic worldview to become nothing more than an ossified body of dos and don’ts. Without a deep and detailed contemporary and futuristic understanding of the Shari’ah, Muslim societies cannot hope to solve their local, national and international problems. The belief that the classical Schools of Islamic Thought have solved all societal problems is dangerously naive. We need to go beyond the classical schools and build a contemporary structure on the foundations laid down by earlier jurists. What is needed is not a reworking of the classical works in the realm of prayer and ritual, personal and social relations, marriage and divorce, dietary laws and rules of fasting: these have been taken care of admirably. What is needed is the extension of the Shari’ah into contemporary domains such as environment and urban planning, science policy and technology assessment, community participation and rural development. In many instances this amounts to reactivating hitherto dormant Shari’ah concepts and institutions and giving them a contemporary life. For example, the Shari’ah injunctions about water laws need to be studied from the perspective of modern environmental problems, and such Shari’ah institutions as harem (inviolate zones of easement), hima (public reserves), and hisbah (office of public inspection) have to be given a living form. Moreover, the Shari’ah needs to be extended beyond law and turned into a dynamic problem-solving methodology. Most jurists Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation 43 would agree that the chief sources of the Shari’ah are the Qur’an; the Sunnah, or the authentic traditions of the Prophet Muhammad; ijma, or the consensus of opinion; qiyas, or judgement upon juristic analogy and ijtihad, or independent reasoning by jurists. The supplementary sources of the Shari’ah are said to be istihsan, that is prohibiting or permitting a thing because it serves or does not serve a ‘useful purpose’; istislah, or public interest; and urf or custom and practice of a society. Classical jurists used ijma, qiyas, ijtihad, istihsan, istislah and urf as methods of solving practical problems. It is indeed tragic that their followers have abandoned the methods and stuck to the actual juristic rulings despite that fact their benefits were obviously limited to a particular historic situation. The blind following of these rulings has not only turned the body of the Shari’ah into a fossilised canon but now threatens to suffocate the very civilisation of Islam. Relegating the pronouncements of classical jurists into eternal principles and rules is not only belittling the Shari’ah, it is detrimental to Muslim societies as well. The reconstruction of Muslim civilisation begins by setting the Shari’ah free from this suffocating hold and giving it the status it truly deserves in the Muslim civilisation; a dynamic problem-solving methodology which touches every aspect of human endeavour. We now come to the four external expressions of the Islamic Weltanschauung. All four areas have received attention in modern Islamic literature: political theory and economics have received extensive attention for almost 30 years now; science, technology and the environment have only recently begun to be studied from the Islamic perspective. Thus, there is plenty of original scholarship here to build upon and to streamline within a civilisational framework. Islamic economics, in particular, has developed considerably in the last decade. However, much of modern work in Islamic economics has been descriptive; and most of it has been trapped in western epistemological concerns and economic frameworks. Indeed, with the sole exception of Nawab Haider Naqvi’s Ethics and Economics: An Islamic Synthesis,7 works on Islamic economics have used description (excessive in the work of Nejatullah Siddiqui) and reduction (overdone in the writing of Monzar Kahf). Moreover, Islamic economics has been developed as a ‘discipline’ (a shadow of western economics perhaps? ) and not as an integrated field destined to become a pillar of the Muslim civilisation. Note that Nejatullah Siddiqui’s Muslim Economic Thinking: A Survey of Contemporary 44 Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures Literature8 does not contain a single citation linking economics to political theory, science and technology or the environment. Considering that technology is the backbone of modern economics, information a prime commodity, environmental degradation a major outcome, it is indeed surprising that the advocates of Islamic economics are silent on these issues. The atomised development of Islamic economics as a unitary discipline, and an obsessive concern with western epistemology, have elegated it to a marginalised existence. Perhaps this is an unfair criticism. But the fact remains that any major advances in Islamic economics can only be made if it becomes a truly interdisciplinary field of endeavour pursued within a civilisational framework. Much the same criticism can be made of the recent works on Islamic political structures and social organisations. M ost of the writings here are trapped in the mould cast by the nation-state and such concepts of western political theory as nationalism, democracy, socialism, bureaucracy and the like. Such works as The Nature of the Islamic State by M. Hadi Hussain and A. H. Kamali9 beg the obvious question: Is Islam a state? Is the nation-state the only expression of an Islamic polity? When it comes to the issue of governance, Muslim political scientists reveal themselves to be true victims of history; only monarchy or Caliphate, best exemplified by Maulana Maududi’s (as yet not translated into English) controversial Urdu treatise, Caliphate or Mulukiat (Caliphate or Kingship? )10 appear to be the viable options to most authors! In the vast universe of ideas that is Islam, is there no other method of governance? Apart from political theory, social structures have also received little interdisciplinary attention. Syed Qutb and Ali Shariati are among the very few who seem to have realised that social exploitation is a dominant theme in Muslim society (an excellent treatment of which is to be found in Syed Qutb’s Social Justice in Islam). 11 The related issues of population and urban decay, the blatant exploitation of women, community development and cultural awareness are conspicuously absent from the social analysis of modern Muslim writers. Both in the fields of political and social structures and of economics, we need interdisciplinary theories, models and methodologies which synthesise these fields with Islamic epistemology and the Shari’ah as well as with the other main external expressions of the worldview of Islam: science and technology and the environment. Very little has been written about the environmental perspective of Islam. However, the few works on the subject are of exceptionally Reconstructing Muslim Civilisation 45 good quality and concentrate on conceptual analysis. For example, various papers of Othman Llewellyn on ‘Desert Reclamation and Islamic Law’12 and Parvez Manzoor’s ‘Environment and Values: The Islamic Perspective’13 provide good indications that a totally contemporary, conceptual as well as pragmatic Islamic theory of the environment can be developed relatively easily and translated into pragmatic policy statements. Similarly, Waqar Ahmad Husaini’s attempt to develop a modern theory of Islamic Environmental Systems Engineering,14 although requiring much elaboration, demonstrates that the conceptual matrix of the worldview of Islam can be fruitfully used for analytical purposes. Science and technology, on the other hand, have not fared so well. In this field, the hold of western epistemology and social models on the minds of Muslim scientists and technologists is almost total. The link between what purports to be a scientific ‘fact’ and epistemology is not easy to grasp. The point that ‘scientific facts’ are not something we can take for granted or think of as solid rocks upon which knowledge is built is, to a modern scientist working in western paradigms, slightly mind-boggling. The epistemological and methodological point is that facts, like cows, have been domesticated to deal with run-of-the-mill events. Hence, the connection between facts and values is not always obvious; and the notion that knowledge is manufactured and not discovered is not appreciated by many Muslim scientists. Thus, the bulk of the literature of ‘Islam and science’ is pretty naive; and some works like Maurice Bucailles’s The Bible, the Qur’an and Science15 are highly dangerous (what can be proved by science can also be disproved by the same science; where does that leave the Qur’an? ) The process of reconstruction of the Muslim civilisation amounts to meeting the seven challenges outlined above. Muslim societies have to think about and study their future not in terms of a resurgence, but as a planned and a continuous process of reconstruction of their civilisation. This process involves, not ‘Islamising’ this or that discipline, but casting the external expressions of Muslim civilisation in the epistemological mode of Islam and the methodology of the Shari’ah. It involves elaborating the worldview of Islam and using the conceptual matrix that is at the heart of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. The mental outlook of this process is based on synthesis and interdisciplinarity. What is the